CLU-IN.ORG | Contaminant Focus: CHROMIUM VI, Treatment Technologies

Chromium VI

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Treatment Technologies

Overview

Chromium primarily exists in nature in the trivalent and hexavalent states. Due to its widespread industrial use, it has been found in at least 120 of the 1,591 current or former NPL sites and is often found in contaminated groundwater along with complex mixtures of pollutants, which can make its remediation more difficult. Many Cr(VI) compounds are highly soluble and exist in solution as hydrochromate, chromate, and dichromate ions. The goal of remediation schemes is to reduce the carcinogenic, soluble, and mobile Cr(VI) to the less toxic and less mobile Cr(III), which forms minimally soluble precipitates. Successful removal of Cr(VI) hinges upon the formation and stability of Cr(III) precipitates.

Ex situ treatment technologies for water use commonly use chemical reduction of the Cr(VI) to Cr(III) followed by precipitation. The treated water is filtered and the chromium rich precipitates are properly disposed of.

Available in situ technologies or treatment approaches for chromate contamination use chemical reduction and fixation for remediation (e.g., geochemical fixation, permeable reactive barriers (PRBs), and reactive zones). Other types of in situ approaches under development include enhanced extraction, electrokinetics, biological processes that can be used within PRBs and reactive zones, phytoremediation, and natural attenuation.

Adapted from:

ATSDR Toxicological Profile for Chromium, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Sep 2000.

Cook, K.R., In Situ Treatment of Soil and Groundwater Contaminated with Chromium. Technical Resource Guide, EPA 625-R-00-005, 2000.

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Reports | Site-Specific Information | Literature References

Reports

100-D Area In Situ Redox Treatability Test for Chromate-Contaminated Groundwater
M.D. Williams, V.R. Vermeul, J.E. Szecsody, J.S. Fruchter. Pacific Northwest National Lab., Richland, WA.
PNNL-13349, 173 pp., Oct 2000
Contact: Mark Williams, mark.d.williams@pnl.gov

A treatability test was conducted to determine the effectiveness of In Situ Redox Manipulation (ISRM) technology on dissolved chromate [Cr(VI)] in groundwater at the 100 D Area of DOE's Hanford Site in southeastern Washington State. ISRM technology involves creating a permeable subsurface treatment zone by injecting aqueous sodium dithionite into the aquifer and then withdrawing the reaction products, thereby reducing ferric iron [Fe(III)] to ferrous iron [Fe(II)] within the aquifer sediments. The treatment zone reduces mobile chromate in groundwater to an insoluble form.

Acid Extraction Treatment System for Treatment of Metal Contaminated Soils
Stephen W. Paff, Brian Bosilovich, and Nicholas J. Kardos, Center for Hazardous Materials Research
Pittsburgh, PA. EPA 540-R-94-513, 58 pp, 1994

Bioremediation of Arsenic, Chromium, Lead, and Mercury
2004

This document was prepared by Adebowale Adeniji, a National Network of Environmental Management studies grantee, under a fellowship from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. This paper addresses the status of the application of biological treatment to clean up hazardous metals from the earth's subsurface.

Development of Humasorb^TM—a Coal Derived Humic Acid for Removal of Metals and Organic Contaminants from Groundwater
H.G. Sanjay, A.K. Fataftah, D.S. Walia, K.C. Srivastava, ARCTECH, Inc., Chantilly, VA.
DE-AR21-95MC32114-10, 119 pp, May 2000
Contact: H. G. Sanjay, envrtech@arctech.com

Humasorb^TM is designed for use in situ in permeable reactive barriers, though mobile treatment systems containing it have been tested.

Emerging Technologies for the Remediation of Metals in Soils:
Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC).

Electrokinetics
MIS-4, 42 pp, 1997

Insitu Stabilization/Inplace Inactivation
MIS-3, 31 pp, 1997

Phytoremediation
MIS-5, 33 pp, 1997

Engineering Bulletin: Technology Alternatives for the Remediation of Soils Contaminated with As, Cd, Cr, Hg, and Pb
Margaret Groeber, Science Applications International Corp.
EPA 540-S-97-500, 21 pp, 1997
Contact: Michael Royer, royer.michael@epa.gov

Environmental Research Brief. Innovative Measures for Subsurface Chromium Remediation: Source Zone, Concentrated Plume, and Dilute Plume
D.A. Sabatini, R.C. Knox, E.E. Tucker, and R.W. Puls.
EPA 600-S-97-005, 16 pp, 1997
Contact: David Sabatini, sabatini@ou.edu

FY2003 Annual Summary Report for the In Situ Redox Manipulation Operations
R.F. Raidl and G.G. Kelty.
DOE/RL-2004-06, OSTI: DE00825446, 85 pp., May 2004.

This is the fourth annual progress and performance report (October 2002 through September 2003) to discuss the In Situ Redox Manipulation (ISRM) interim remedial action to address a hexavalent chromium plume at the Hanford 100-HR-3 Operable Unit. Implementation of the ISRM technology involves creating a permeable subsurface treatment zone by injecting sodium dithionite into the aquifer, which creates a chemically reduced environment. Hexavalent chromium passing through the treatment zone is reduced to less toxic and less mobile trivalent chromium.

Groundwater Monitoring Network Optimization: Frontier Hard Chrome Superfund Site, Vancouver, Washington
EPA 542-R-07-021, 101 pp, 2007

In situ redox manipulation (ISRM) was selected as the remedy for this former chrome plating facility. In 2003, an area downgradient from the source was injected with reducing agents, resulting in the reduction of naturally occurring iron in the subsurface. The area of reduced iron formed an in situ PRB, reducing soluble Cr(VI) in ground water to Cr(III). An evaluation of the current ground-water monitoring network revealed several areas where wells are no longer needed (spatial redundancy) and showed that approximately two-thirds of monitoring locations have achieved the cleanup goals with 80% or greater statistical power, given the current dataset. Ground-water samples at certain monitoring well locations are under low reducing conditions due to the continued presence of reducing agents. The reviewers recommend the exclusion of 10 redundant wells from the monitoring program and a reduced sampling frequency for the majority of wells.

In Situ Chemical Reduction of Cr(VI) in Groundwater Using a Combination of Ferrous Sulfate and Sodium Dithionite: A Field Investigation
R.D. Ludwig, C. Su, T.R. Lee, R.T. Wilkin, S.D. Acree, R.R. Ross, and A. Keeley.
Environmental Science & Technology, Vol 41 No 15, p 5299-5305, 2007

A field study was conducted to evaluate the performance of an in situ redox zone for the treatment of a dissolved-phase hexavalent chromium (Cr[VI]) plume at a former industrial site. The in situ redox zone was created by injecting a blend of 0.2M ferrous sulfate and 0.2M sodium dithionite into the path of the plume within a shallow, unconfined aquifer formation of medium-to-fine sand. Monitoring data collected over a period of 1,020 days after more than 100 m of linear ground-water flow through the treatment zone indicated sustained treatment of dissolved-phase Cr(VI) from initial concentrations between 4 and 8 mg/L to less than 0.015 mg/L.

In Situ Gaseous Reduction Pilot Demonstration – Final Report
E.C. Thornton, J.T. Giblin, T.J Gilmore, K.B. Olsen, J.M. Phelan, and R.D. Miller, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA.
PNNL-12121, 95 pp., 1999
Contact: Edward Thornton, edward.thornton@pnl.gov

In Situ Gaseous Reduction System. Innovative Technology Summary Report
U.S. DOE, Office of Science and Technology. DOE/EM-0521, 24 pp, Apr 2000
Contact: Edward Thornton, edward.thornton@pnl.gov

In Situ Groundwater MOP-UP
Biopraxis, Inc., for U.S. DOE, Federal Energy Technology Center, Morgantown, WV.
DOE/MC/33090-1, 92 pp., 1998

This report describes feasibility tests that showed MOP-UP^® able to remove all detectable traces of a wide variety of metals, such as Hg, Pb, Cd, Cu, Cr(VI), As, Ba, Zn, and Al, and take U into the low parts per trillions, in heavily polluted groundwater, with little effort needed to optimize the reagent formulation.

In Situ Permeable Reactive Barrier for the Treatment of Hexavalent Chromium and Trichloroethylene in Ground Water:
Contact: David W. Blowes, blowes@sciborg.uwaterloo.ca
Volume 1. Design and Installation, EPA 600-R-99-095A, 128 pp., 1999
Volume 2. Performance Monitoring, EPA 600-R-99-095B, 240 pp., 1999
Volume 3. Multicomponent Reactive Transport Modeling, EPA 600-R-99-095C, 52 pp., 1999
D.W. Blowes, R.W. Gillham, C.J. Ptacek, R.W. Puls, T.A. Bennett.

In Situ Redox Manipulation Permeable Reactive Barrier Emplacement: Final Report, Frontier Hard Chrome Superfund Site, Vancouver, WA
V.R. Vermeul, M.L. Rockhold, B.N. Bjornstad, J.E. Szecsody, C.J. Murray, M.D. Williams, D.R. Newcomer, and Y. Xie.
PNWD-3361, 107 pp + separate appendices, 2004

This report documents results from the emplacement of an in situ redox manipulation (ISRM) treatment zone for the remediation of chromate-contaminated ground water.

In Situ Treatment of Soil and Groundwater Contaminated with Chromium. Technical Resource Guide
K.R. Cook, Science Applications International Corp., San Diego, CA.
EPA 625-R-00-005, NTIS: PB2001-103721, 2000
Contact: Douglas W. Grosse, grosse.douglas@epa.gov

This report brings together information pertaining to chromium contamination and its in situ treatment and control in groundwater and/or soil, and addresses developed and developing technologies. The report contains a description of each technology, with advantages and disadvantages, status, and performance and cost data.

Low-Level Hexavalent Chromium Treatment Options: Bench-Scale Evaluation
P. Brandhuber, M. Frey, M. McGuire, P.F. Chao, C. Seidel, G. Amy, J. Yoon, L. McNeill, and K. Banerjee.
IWA Pub., London. AwwaRF Report 91042F, ISBN: 1843399245, 212 pp, 2005.

Researchers investigated nearly all of the potential methods of controlling Cr(VI), via either technologies that remove it directly (adsorption, anion exchange, membrane filtration) or those that remove Cr(III), the reduced form of chromium (precipitation with membranes or coagulation and precipitation with conventional or membrane filters).

Metals in Soils 1998 Technology Status Report: Soil Washing and the Emerging Technologies of Phytoremediation, Electrokinetics, In-Situ Stabilization/Inplace Inactivation
Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC), MIS-6, 46 pp., 1999

Permeable Reactive Subsurface Barriers for the Interception and Remediation of Chlorinated Hydrocarbon and Chromium(VI) Plumes in Ground Water
EPA 600-F-97-008, July 1997
Contact: Robert W. Puls, puls.robert@epa.gov

Monitored Natural Attenuation of Inorganic Contaminants in Ground Water, Volume 2: Assessment for Non-Radionuclides, Including Arsenic, Cadmium, Chromium, Copper, Lead, Nickel, Nitrate, Perchlorate, and Selenium
EPA 600-R-07-140, 2007

In a separate chapter for each listed contaminant, Volume 2 of 3 describes (1) the natural immobilization or degradation processes that can result in the attenuation of the contaminant and (2) data requirements to be met during site characterization. The document emphasizes characterization of immobilization and/or degradation processes that may control contaminant attenuation, as well as technical approaches to assess performance characteristics of the MNA remedy. A tiered analysis approach is presented to assist in organizing site characterization tasks.

Recent Developments for In Situ Treatment of Metal Contaminated Soils
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Technology Innovation Office.
EPA 542-R-97-004, 1997
Contact: John Kingscott, kingscott.john@epa.gov

Remediation of Metals-Contaminated Soils and Groundwater. Technology Evaluation Report
Cynthia R. Evanko and David A. Dzombak, Carnegie Mellon Univ., Pittsburgh, PA.
Ground-Water Remediation Technologies Analysis Center (GWRTAC), TE-97-01, 61 pp, 1997

Sol-Gel Stabilization of Heavy Metal Waste
Cropek, Donald; P. Kemme; J. Day; J. Barrios, Construction Engineering Research Lab (Army), Champaign, IL.
Report No: CERL-TR-00-6, NTIS: ADA375073, 22 pp, Feb 2000
Contact: Donald Cropek, Donald.M.Cropek@erdc.usace.army.mil

Sol-gel chemistry is a low-temperature means to make glass that chemically incorporates heavy metals in a glass matrix rather than merely encapsulating them. This report contains a recipe formulated for immobilizing lead in glass by the sol-gel process and discusses the merits of the process. Test results showed that sol-gel processing stabilized some lead from solutions and encapsulated other metals (including chromium) in a glass matrix. The testers found sol-gel was found to be too sensitive to chemistry, too limited in application, and too expensive to compete with current S/S processes.

Study of Microbial Chromium(VI) Reduction by Electron Energy
T.L. Daulton, B.J. Little, and J.M. Jones-Meehan.
2002 NRL Review, NRL/PU/5211-02-442, p. 115-117, May 2002

Surface-Altered Zeolites as Permeable Barriers for In Situ Treatment of Contaminated Groundwater
R.S. Bowman, Z. Li, S.J. Roy, T. Burt, T.L. Johnson, R.L. Johnson.
DE-AR21-95MC32108-02, 61 pp, 1999
Contact: Robert S. Bowman, bowman@nmt.edu

This report describes two pilot-scale tests of surfactant-modified zeolite (SMZ) permeable barriers conducted at the Large Experimental Aquifer Facility of the Oregon Graduate Institute on groundwater contaminated with chromate and PCE.

Site-Specific Information

Federal Remediation Technology Roundtable Technology Cost and Performance Reports

Literature References

Technology Innovation News Survey Archives
The Technology Innovation News Survey archive contains resources gathered from published material and gray literature relevant to the research, development, testing, and application of innovative technologies for the remediation of hazardous waste sites. The collected abstracts date from 1998 to the present, and the archive is updated twice each month.