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Bioremediation of Chlorinated Solvents

Application

Bioaugmentation for Groundwater Remediation
R. Steffan, C. Schaefer, and D. Lippincott, Shaw Environmental and Infrastructure, Inc.
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), Project ER-0515, 345 pp, Feb 2010

A plume of dissolved-phase cDCE in the MAG-1 Area groundwater at Fort Dix, NJ, was selected for a field demonstration of bioaugmentation using Shaw's SDC-9 Dehalococcoides sp. (DHC)-containing culture. The project evaluated the amount of culture needed to remediate the plume effectively, effect of inoculum dose on remedial time, effect of site characteristics on technology effectiveness, and methods to increase and maintain an elevated pH for successful bioremediation. A methodology for isolation, production, storage, and distribution of DHC-containing cultures suitable for field-scale applications was developed. Results showed that CVOC-contaminated aquifers can be remediated effectively by using active groundwater recirculation, bioaugmentation with the SDC-9 consortium, and pH adjustment. A screening model for bioaugmentation 1-D fate and transport was also developed. See also ESTCP Cost and Performance Report (2010)

Biodegradation of Dense Non-Aqueous Phase Liquids (DNAPLS) through Bioaugmentation of Source Areas - Dover National Test Site, Dover, Delaware
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), Project ER-0008, 101 pp, 2007

This demonstration was conducted to determine if bioaugmentation can stimulate complete dechlorination of a DNAPL to nontoxic end products, as well as increase the mass flux from a source zone when biological dehalorespiration activity is enhanced through nutrient addition and/or bioaugmentation. The demonstration was able to prove that biological systems can be applied to promote enhanced dissolution of a PCE DNAPL source zone. Conservatively, the study appears to demonstrate an average increase in mass discharge ranging from 2.2 to 4.5 during the bioaugmentation phase relative to baseline (groundwater extraction only) conditions. If the increase in degradation rates is insufficient to enhance DNAPL removal significantly, rapid biodegradation of the high VOC concentrations typically encountered in DNAPL source zones will provide biological containment of the groundwater plume, thereby reducing cleanup times and/or reducing the O&M cost of conventional containment using pump and treat. See also ESTCP Cost and Performance Report (2008) and Lessons Learned (2007).

Bioenhanced In-Well Vapor Stripping (BEHIVS) to Treat Trichloroethylene
Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP). 75 pp, 2003.

An in-well vapor stripper and two biotreatment wells were installed near a TCE-contaminated 'hot spot' zone at Edwards AFB for an August-December 2001 technology demonstration. In-well vapor stripping and in situ aerobic cometabolic bioremediation were combined to address a TCE source area without bringing contaminated ground water to the surface.

Bioremediation Systems at Beale Growing, Getting Better
Centerviews, Vol 14 No 1, p 6-7, Spring 2008

Additional Information (67KB/17pp/PDF)

Beale AFB, CA, has enhanced in situ bioremediation (EISB) systems in 2 areas to address groundwater contaminated with TCE. The systems combine in situ biostimulation using food-grade injectants and bioaugmentation using Dehalococcoides bacteria in KB-1. One system is achieving successful reductions in contaminant levels, and the other system is new. These combined bioremediation processes can take several years to achieve the cleanup goal, depending on groundwater conditions, distribution of the electron donor, and initial solvent concentrations.

Bioremediation of Chlorinated Solvents in Fractured Bedrock: Characterization and Case Studies
2002

This document was prepared by Erica Borum, a NNEMS grantee under a fellowship from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The objective of this paper is to present in situ bioremediation in fractured bedrock as an innovative technology for the treatment of chlorinated solvents. The heterogeneity of fractured bedrock and the persistence of chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons (CAHs) create a costly, remedial challenge in the subsurface. Due to the existence of microorganisms in the subsurface, bioremediation processes in fractured bedrock have proven to be a potentially successful remedial process. This paper summarizes ten on-going case studies that are utilizing bioremediation of chlorinated solvent and will discuss the parameters of the projects as well as current findings.

Case Histories from Eight Years of Successful Testing and Remediation Using Aerobic Soy Based Co-Metabolism for Removal of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons from Groundwater
D. Blackert and J. Cibrik.
The Business of Brownfields: 2009 Conference Proceedings, 15-17 April, Pittsburgh, PA. 8 pp, 2009

Aerobic cometabolism approaches�which combine air sparging, liquid/liquid extraction, and biological cometabolism�have been employed successfully at more than 10 field pilot- and full-scale implementations for remediation of halogenated hydrocarbons (TCE, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform) plus other hydrocarbons and fluorocarbons in groundwater, achieving 'no further action' approval at several sites. A soy methyl ester and a biodegradable surfactant blend has been used extensively for full-scale field application. The cases include a 2003 Kansas City pilot test to address TCE and DCE, followed by full-scale remediation in 2004.

Case Study: In Situ Accelerated Anaerobic Bioremediation
A. Bloom, B. Lyon, and L. Stenberg.
E2S2 2010: Environment, Energy Security, and Sustainability Symposium and Exhibition, 14-17 June 2010, Denver, Colorado. National Defense Industrial Association (NDIA), Abstract 9778, 34 slides, 2010

Accelerated anaerobic bioremediation (AAB) was applied at Dover AFB to a large, multi-source plume of chlorinated ethenes and some ethanes. The Area 6 plume is ~1 mile in length and over 1,000 feet wide and originates from at least 5 separate source areas that commingle in the subsurface. Remediation involved targeted direct AAB injection of a substrate mixture of sodium lactate, emulsified vegetable oil (EVO), and nutrients in source areas. After 3 years of treatment, plume-wide degradation is being observed. PCE and TCE concentrations within the AAB treatment areas have declined by over 80% in many wells, and the presence of ethene is increasing in areal extent over time. See longer abstract

Chlorobenzene Bioreactor Demonstration
1997. D. Miller; J. Spain; W. Wallace; C. Vogel. AL/EQ-1993-0008, NTIS: AD-A332 757/4, 63 pp.

A field study was undertaken at Robins AFB, Georgia, to investigate whether above-ground, fixed-film bioreactors can biodegrade complex mixtures of chlorinated aromatic compounds in ground water using the metabolic capabilities of Pseudomonas Strain JS150.

Cometabolic Bioreactor Demonstration at the Oak Ridge K-25 Site: Final Report
Lucero, A. J.; T.L. Donaldson; H.L. Jennings; M.I. Morris; A.V. Palumbo; Oak Ridge National Laboratory, TN; ORNL/TM-12851, NTIS: DE96000848, 90 pp, Aug 95

Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) conducted a comparative demonstration of two different cometabolic processes for bioremediation of ground water contaminated with trichloroethylene (TCE) and other chlorinated solvents. Methanotrophic (methane-utilizing) technology was demonstrated first; aromatic-utilizing microorganisms were demonstrated later. This report documents the operation of the methanotrophic bioreactor system to treat the seep water at the demonstration site. The report is available to view or download through the DOE Information Bridge. http://www.osti.gov/bridge/

Cost and Performance Report: Sequential Anaerobic/Aerobic Biodegradation of PCE at Watertown, Massachusetts
2000. U.S. EPA, Technology Innovation Office, Washington, DC, 7 pp.

D6-2 Status Report on Technological Reliability for Demonstrated Soil and Groundwater Management Technologies with Special Focus on the Situation In Europe, Part 2: Update on Bioremediation Only
Eurodemo Project (GOCE) 003985, 71 pp, 2007

To encourage the application of enhanced in situ bioremediation technologies across Europe, EuroDemo has prepared this report on bioaugmentation and biostimulation techniques used to address chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbon contamination, illustrating them with case studies of successful implementation at sites in the United States.

DNAPL Bioremediation � RTDF. Innovative Technology Summary Report
2002. U.S. DOE, Office of Environmental Management. DOE/EM-0625, 29 pp.

This report describes the demonstration of three in situ bioremediation techniques by the Remediation Technologies Development Forum (RTDF) Bioremediation of Chlorinated Solvents Work Group at Dover Air Force Base.

DNAPL Remediation: Selected Projects Where Regulatory Closure Goals Have Been Achieved
EPA 542-R-09-008, 2009

The purpose of this paper is to highlight sites where dense nonaqueous phase liquid (DNAPL) source reduction has been demonstrated as an aid in meeting regulatory cleanup goals. The presence of DNAPL in the subsurface can serve as a long-term source of dissolved contaminant plumes in groundwater, making it more difficult to reach regulatory closure. However, once the DNAPL source is addressed, residual groundwater plumes may be more amenable to treatment, including less aggressive techniques such as monitored natural attenuation (MNA) or bioremediation. This paper updates the document, DNAPL Remediation: Selected Projects Approaching Regulatory Closure, prepared in 2004 by providing more recent information on technologies and on five additional selected sites at which DNAPL source reduction technologies were applied.

Demonstration of Bioaugmentation at Kelly AFB, TX
2004. B. Alleman, M. Place, and D. Major. AFRL-ML-TY-TR-2004-4530, 155 pp.

This report describes an application of the KB-1 culture to remediate TCE contamination at Kelly AFB.

Demonstration of Bioaugmentation at Kelly AFB, Texas: ESTCP Cost And Performance Report
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), Project ER-9914, 42 pp, 2007

After augmentation of the aquifer with KB-1™ (a prepared culture of halorespiring bacteria) to address PCE, TCE, and their degradation products, complete dechlorination of PCE to ethene was observed.

Demonstration of Biodegradation of Dense, Nonaqueous-Phase Liquids (DNAPL) Through Biostimulation and Bioaugmentation at Launch Complex 34 in Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida: Final Innovative Technology Evaluation Report
A. Gavaskar, W-S. Yoon, M. Gaberell, E. Drescher, L. Cumming, J. Sminchak, J. Hicks, B. Buxton, M. Morara, T. Wilk, and R. Copley.
EPA 540-R-07-007, 103 pp, 2004

The demonstration to evaluate the technical and cost performance of the bioremediation technologies when applied to a TCE DNAPL source zone began in June 2002 and ended in February 2003. Sequential application of biostimulation (ethanol as electron donor) and bioaugmentation (the KB-1 consortium) was evaluated in the same small test plot beneath a building. The treatments significantly decreased total TCE and DNAPL mass in the target treatment zone.

Design and Performance of an Enhanced Bioremediation Pilot Test in a Tidal Wetland Seep, West Branch Canal Creek, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland
E.H. Majcher, M.M. Lorah, D.J. Phelan, and A.L. McGinty.
U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2009-5112, 84 pp + appendices, 2009

Where seep area 3-4W was transporting groundwater contaminated with carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, PCE, TCE, and 1,1,2,2-TCA to land surface, a 22-inch-thick reactive microbial mat--peat and compost augmented with a dechlorinating microbial consortium (WBC-2)--was constructed and monitored from October 2004 through October 2005. A layer of ZVI mixed with the peat and compost was added at the base of the mat for simultaneous abiotic and biotic degradation. Overall, the mat met the design goal of at least 90% mass removal of total CVOCs and maintained it for 1 year.

Details for Site ID 3222, Springvilla Dry Cleaner
Oregon Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ), Environmental Cleanup Site Information Database.

DEQ, with cooperation from the owner, McKay Investment Company, conducted a removal action in August and September 2004 to address the PCE in source soils present beneath the former dry cleaner building. McKay removed the cleaner's building and temporarily supported the adjacent building to allow DEQ's contractor to excavate about 150 cubic yards of soil from the former dry cleaning operation and treat it on site by SVE with vapor-phase carbon filtration to below residential risk-based levels. During excavation, the contractor installed subsurface piping near the water table to allow for injection of chemical or biological agents. In September 2004, 1,100 gallons of 4% sodium permanganate solution were injected into the gallery to address residual hot-spot soil and groundwater contamination. A groundwater bioremediation project was implemented in August 2007 to reduce levels of VOCs at and downgradient of the former dry cleaner. In August 2009, DEQ injected emulsified oil into direct push borings in a grid array beneath the adjacent building as part of the removal action to reduce VOC concentrations in underlying shallow groundwater and to mitigate potential vapor intrusion issues. Groundwater recirculation ended in late August 2009.
Additional information:

Development of Permeable Reactive Barriers (PRB) Using Edible Oils
R.C. Borden.
SERDP Project ER-1205, 159 pp, 2008

A detailed field pilot test was conducted to evaluate the use of an emulsified oil biobarrier to enhance the in situ anaerobic biodegradation of perchlorate and chlorinated solvents in groundwater. The biobarrier was installed by injecting 380 L of commercially available soybean oil-in-water emulsion through 10 direct-push injection wells over a 2-day period. Field monitoring results over a 2.5 year period following emulsion injection indicates the oil injection generated strongly reducing conditions in the oil-treated zone with depletion of dissolved oxygen, nitrate, and sulfate, and increases in dissolved iron, manganese, and methane. Perchlorate at 3,100 to 20,000 µg/L was degraded to below detection (<4 µg/L) in the injection and nearby monitor wells within 5 days of injection. Two years after the single emulsion injection, perchlorate was less than 6 µg/L in every downgradient well compared to an average upgradient concentration of 13,100 µg/L. Emulsion injection stimulated reductive dechlorination of 1,1,1-TCA, PCE, and TCE during groundwater migration through the biobarrier but did not reduce them to target treatment levels.

Draft Operable Unit Carbon Tetrachloride Plume Deployment Area 1A Data Summary Report, Enhanced In Situ Bioremediation Remedial Action, Former Fort Ord, California
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Sacramento, CA. 90 pp, 2011

Between September 14, 2009, and March 16, 2010, ~5,000 gallons of sodium lactate were injected into the subsurface and distributed via a groundwater recirculation system. All extraction wells within the treatment area showed significant decreases in CT concentrations to below the aquifer cleanup level (ACL) of 0.5 µg/L at the completion of performance monitoring. CT concentrations in groundwater in all wells but one monitored as part of the EISB implementation were reduced below the ACL. Monitoring will continue long term to evaluate EISB progress and identify any rebound in CT concentrations. Additional information: Appendices

Edible Oil Barriers for Treatment of Chlorinated Solvent Contaminated Groundwater
M.T. Lieberman and R.C. Borden.
ESTCP Project ER-0221, 228 pp, 2009

A pilot test was conducted between 2003 and 2007 at Charleston Naval Weapons Station, SC, to evaluate the effectiveness of EOS�, a commercially available emulsified oil substrate, for enhancing the biodegradation of dissolved-phase chlorinated VOCs in groundwater and aquifer material in a treatment cell. The cell contained 4,000 cubic ft of contaminated aquifer material with up to 16,000 �g/kg TCE in soil and >20,000 �g/L TCE in groundwater. Phase I involved site characterization, baseline sampling, EOS injection, and monitoring for 28 months. Phase II involved a bench-scale treatability study, development and injection of a newly formulated pH-buffered substrate to overcome a pH problem, and an additional 11 months of monitoring to measure the effect of the second substrate. The buffered EOS raised the pH and alkalinity of the aquifer, which allowed the native dehalorespiring populations to re-initiate their metabolism of TCE and DCE and biodegrade TCE throughout the test cell. Over the entire 41-month monitoring period in Phases I and II, the total chlorinated VOC concentration decreased from 198 �M to 17 �M, a decline of 91%. See also the ESTCP Cost and Performance Report.

Emulsified Zero-Valent Nano-Scale Iron Treatment of Chlorinated Solvent DNAPL Source Areas
T. Krug, S. O'Hara, M. Watling, and J. Quinn.
ESTCP Project ER-0431, 763 pp, 2010

A field demonstration/validation of EZVI injections to remediate chlorinated solvent DNAPL (PCE and daughter products) source zones was conducted in 2006 at Site 45, a former drycleaning facility at Marine Corps Recruit Depot, Parris Island, SC. EZVI promotes both abiotic and biotic degradation of contaminants. The demonstration also compared the efficacy of pneumatic injection versus direct injection for EZVI delivery. ESTCP Cost & Performance Report

Enhanced Anaerobic Bioremediation Using CAP18™ as a Polishing Application for CVOC-Impacted Groundwater
W. McClendon, M. Hildebrandt, J. Shimp, B. Bigelow, and J. Hesemann. In Situ and On-Site Bioremediation 2009: Proceedings of the 10th International In Situ and On-Site Bioremediation Symposium, 5-8 May, Baltimore, Maryland. Battelle Press, ISBN: 9780981973012, 2009

In 2006, a pilot study was conducted at Fort Riley, Kansas, at a former drycleaning facility to determine if PCE contamination in groundwater could be treated in situ using enhanced anaerobic bioremediation (EAB) to accelerate biodegradation of chlorinated compounds to levels below the cleanup criteria, and to serve as a final-stage remedial polishing agent to decrease the overall monitoring timeframe and cost. CAP18�, a non-emulsified (or neat) vegetable oil product was applied through direct-push rods at 2- to 3-ft depth intervals at 73 locations spaced on 18-ft centers in a treatment area ~75 ft by 230 ft. Performance monitoring data show very positive trends in key parameters (VOC concentrations, DO, ORP, and methane), indicating that an enhanced reducing environment has been established.

Enhanced In Situ Bioremediation. Innovative Technology Summary Report
2002. U.S. DOE, Office of Environmental Management. DOE/EM-0624, 29 pp.

This report covers a 1999-2000 demonstration to treat the source area of a TCE plume in the ground water at the Test Area North site of DOE�s Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory (INEEL).

Enhanced In-Situ Anaerobic Bioremediation of Chlorinated Solvents at LF-08, Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri
Federal Remediation Technologies Roundtable Cost and Performance Database, 2007

Enhancing Natural Attenuation through Bioaugmentation with Aerobic Bacteria that Degrade cis-1,2-Dichloroethene
D. Major, C. Aziz, M. Watling, J. Gossett, J. Spain, and S. Nishino.
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP) Project ER-0516, 245 pp, 2010

A field demonstration to evaluate the effectiveness of a novel aerobic bacterium (Polaromonas sp. strain JS666) that uses cDCE as a sole carbon and energy source was conducted at Site 21, St. Julien's Creek Annex in Chesapeake, VA. Two bioaugmentation plots were established to evaluate the effect of adding JS666 and oxygen on the rate of biodegradation, while the control plots were designed to account for the effects of buffer and buffer with oxygen. One bioaugmentation was performed in October 2008 and the other in February 2009. Although cDCE declined in some of the bioaugmented wells, the % reduction was less than 75% relative to baseline concentrations, and the reduction in the bioaugmented plots was not twice that of the control plots; hence, neither performance objective was met.

Field Evaluation Report of Enhanced In Situ Bioremediation (ISB), Test Area North (TAN) Operable Unit (OU) 1-07B
2000. Sorenson, K.S.; J.P. Martin; H. Bullock Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory, Idaho Falls, ID; Report No: INEEL/EXT-2000-00258, Rev. 0, 149 pp.

Field Evidence for Co-Metabolism of Trichloroethene Stimulated by Addition of Electron Donor to Groundwater
Conrad, M.E., E.L. Brodie, C.W. Radtke, M. Bill, M.E. Delwiche, M.H. Lee, D.L. Swift, and F.S. Colwell.
LBNL-3683E, 40 pp, 2010

Following favorable results from the 1999 pilot test, electron donor has been injected into the Snake River aquifer beneath the Test Area North site at Idaho National Laboratory for more than 10 years to stimulate microbial reductive dechlorination of TCE in groundwater. Significant TCE removal from the source area of the contaminant plume and elevated dissolved methane in the groundwater extending 250 m from the injection well are evident, indicating that electron donor amendment designed to stimulate reductive dechlorination of TCE can also stimulate cometabolism of TCE. [NOTE: this is the manuscript version of the paper in Environmental Science & Technology 44(12):4697-4704(2010)]

Final Evaluation of Performance and Costs Associated with Anaerobic Dechlorination Techniques, Phase I Site Survey, Revision 02
2002. Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), 135 pp.

Final Report for the Enhanced Anaerobic Bioremediation Pilot Test, Bountiful/Woods Cross Superfund Site, Bountiful, Utah
Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, CO. 66 pp, 2006

This biostimulation/bioaugmentation pilot study to address TCE contamination involved a side-by-side comparison in 3 test cells of 3 different bioremediation substrates: sodium lactate, chitin, and emulsified soybean oil. Following the first round of substrate injection and sampling, all 3 test cells were inoculated with a commercially available dechlorinating culture containing Dehalococcoides ethenogenes. Based on the results of the pilot test, full-scale enhanced anaerobic bioremediation was selected for the site's 2006 Record of Decision. Emulsified oil is recommended as the electron donor.

Fluidized-Bed Adsorption Bioreactor for the Treatment of Groundwater Contaminated with Solvents at Fluidized-bed Adsorption Bioreactor for Groundwater Contaminated with Solvents at Low Concentration
1999. Paul H. Miyares; Cynthia V. Teeter; C. James Martel. CRREL Special Report 99-1, 20 pp.

A fluidized bed adsorption bioreactor was examined in a pilot study for its efficacy in treating ground water contaminated with TCE at low concentrations.

Focused Engineering Evaluation/Cost Analysis, Groundwater Plumes Interim Corrective Measure, Former Air Force Plant PJKS, Waterton Canyon, Colorado. Revision 1
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Omaha District, 52 pp, 2005.

In 2003 at PJKS, a bedrock pilot study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of in situ anaerobic biodegradation of TCE and NDMA in bedrock source areas by the introduction of sodium lactate.

Groundwater Remediation Using Enhanced Anaerobic Bioremediation
American Academy of Environmental Engineers (AAEE), 2009 E3 Small Projects Grand Prize.

For the development of a unique groundwater cleanup solution, AAEE honored CDM with a 2009 Excellence in Environmental Engineering award in the small projects category. CDM worked with Rockwell Automation to remediate groundwater contamination at a 9-acre site in Orlando, Florida, that previously housed a computer circuit-board manufacturing facility. During facility operations, chlorinated solvents were released to the groundwater. The contamination (i.e., 2,000,000 ppb methylene chloride) was addressed with enhanced anaerobic bioremediation (EAB) in conjunction with a unique groundwater recirculation technique. CDM pilot-tested and demonstrated the effectiveness of EAB using potassium lactate in a system of horizontal recovery and vertical injection wells designed to introduce the lactate into the groundwater and recirculate the groundwater to ensure continual mixing of lactate, bacteria, and contaminants. The well system also exerted hydraulic control, preventing contaminant migration off site. Full-scale operation began in December 2007, and within 6 months, volatile organic compound mass fell by >90%. Remediation of the methylene chloride in the targeted area has been completed, with no contaminant rebound observed.

Hydrogen Release Compound (HRC�) Barrier Application at the North of Basin F Site, Rocky Mountain Arsenal: Innovative Technology Evaluation Report
EPA 540-R-09-004, 95 pp, 2009

The primary objective of the evaluation in the plume study area was to determine the ability of the technology to reduce concentrations of the following contaminants: di-isopropylmethylphosphonate (DIMP), chlorophenylmethyl sulfide, chlorophenylmethyl sulfone, dieldrin, dicyclopentadiene (DCPD), chloroform, methylene chloride, and PCE. Benzene, TCE, 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane, and n-nitroso-dimethylamine were also evaluated. Results showed decreasing trends for PCE, TCE, DIMP, DCPD, and benzene.

Impact of Landfill Closure Designs on Long-Term Natural Attenuation of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons: ESTCP Cost and Performance Report
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), Project ER-0019, 47 pp, 2008

A 24-month pilot-scale field demonstration of a recirculation bioreactor at Landfill 3, Altus AFB, OK, was undertaken to show that a combination of organic material addition and accelerated leaching can rapidly reduce source area concentrations of CAHs (TCE) in groundwater at unlined, closed landfills. A 30-ft x 30-ft x 11-ft-deep portion of the landfill near the suspected TCE source area was excavated and backfilled with a mixture of mulch and sand. A groundwater extraction trench was excavated into the shallow aquifer downgradient of the reactor cell and backfilled with gravel. Groundwater from the trench was extracted and distributed within the bioreactor cell using a drip irrigation system. The bioreactor removal efficiencies for TCE and total chlorinated ethenes from recirculated groundwater ranged from 97 to 100% and 76 to 96%, respectively. Because of a continuing TCE source upgradient of the bioreactor and the accumulation of daughter products in the aquifer beneath and adjacent to the bioreactor, the objective of reducing CAH concentrations by 90% was not achieved. The cost analysis indicates that because the mulch bioreactor technology has the potential for high costs to be incurred, depending on the size of the source area and the type of waste encountered, this treatment approach may be appropriate for well-defined, small, isolated source areas marked by shallow groundwater but not for large landfills with multiple source areas.

In Situ Bioremediation Technologies: Experiences in the Netherlands and Future European Challenges
A. Langenhoff.
EuroDemo, 21 pp, 2007

The author discusses five different approaches to in situ bioremediation: bioventing, biosparging, bioaugmentation, monitored natural attenuation, and enhanced bioremediation/enhanced natural attenuation. Four brief case studies describe implementation of enhanced bioremediation/enhanced natural attenuation at sites in the Netherlands. The cases cover reductive dechlorination of PCE, cis-DCE, and HCH, respectively, plus anaerobic oxidation of BTEX.

In Situ Bioremediation and Soil Vapor Extraction at the Former Beaches Laundry & Cleaners
Federal Remediation Technologies Roundtable Cost & Performance Database, 2010

In Situ Bioremediation for the Hanford Carbon Tetrachloride Plume: Innovative Technology Summary Report
1999. DOE/EM-0418, 22 pp.

In situ bioremediation (ISB) of the Hanford carbon tetrachloride plume treats ground water contaminated with volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and nitrates under anaerobic conditions. ISB involves the injection of nutrients into the ground water with subsequent extraction and re-injection of the ground water to provide nutrient distribution in the aquifer. Developed by Battelle's Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), the technology relies on indigenous microorganisms and a computer-based Accelerated Bioremediation Design Tool (ABDT). The report is also available to view or download through the DOE Information Bridge.

In Situ Bioremediation of Chlorinated Ethene DNAPL Source Zones: Case Studies
2007

This report was published by the Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC). As part of its strategic approach, the ITRC BioDNAPL's Team determined that an independent evaluation of the status of bioremediation was needed, that review of a .data rich. set of case studies would be the best evaluation approach, and that a forum would be an appropriate setting for the process. The team gathered and evaluated a number of proposed case studies and selected a group of six that would demonstrate bioremediation of DNAPLs in a wide range of conditions. The selected case studies can be classified as demonstrations, pilot-scale tests, those in design, and full-scale cleanups.

In Situ Bioremediation of Chlorinated Ethenes Using Liquid Atomized Injection
B.J. Lazar and N.M. Rabah.
In Situ and On-Site Bioremediation 2009: Proceedings of the 10th International In Situ and On-Site Bioremediation Symposium, 5-8 May, Baltimore, Maryland. Battelle Press, ISBN: 9780981973012, 8 pp, 2009

Liquid atomized injection (LAI) was used to optimize amendment delivery and increase the extent of influence for enhanced in situ bioremediation of a source zone within a shallow unconfined aquifer contaminated with PCE, TCE, and c-DCE at an industrial site in Middlesex County, NJ. A field pilot test was designed and implemented for comparative evaluation of the spatial distribution of EHC(r), a patented combination of controlled-release carbon and zero-valent iron, via conventional hydraulic injection and enhanced injection with LAI. Six hydraulic and four LAI injection points were used to inject 8,500 pounds of EHC� as a 30% slurry over 2,400 square ft of source zone area. Amendment delivery was optimized through the use of LAI, and initial post-injection results demonstrate multiple lines of evidence for the biological reduction of chlorinated ethenes at this site. Longer-term post-injection groundwater monitoring results are presented with implications for optimizing full-scale design and implementation.

In Situ Bioremediation of Chlorinated Solvent Source Areas with Enhanced Mass Transfer
T. Macbeth, and K. Sorenson.
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), Project ER-0218, 396 pp, 2008

A demonstration of enhanced mass transfer of chloroethenes from DNAPL to groundwater during in situ bioremediation of TCE was conducted at the Fort Lewis Logistics Center East Gate Disposal Yard (EGDY) using the Bioavailability Enhancement Technology�, or B.E.T.(tm). For the first time at the field scale, this demonstration provided rigorous documentation of the electron donor (whey) concentration-dependence of enhanced mass transfer of chlorinated solvents in a source area. In 2 hydraulically isolated treatment cells, each consisting of a network of monitoring wells, an injection well, and an extraction well, anaerobic reductive dechlorination occurred concurrently with enhanced mass transfer and resulted in rapid source strength reduction. The rapid effect on downgradient contaminant flux observed at the Ft. Lewis site might be a best-case scenario owing to the high ambient groundwater flow rates. See also the ESTCP Cost and Performance Report.

In Situ Bioremediation of Chlorinated Solvent with Natural Gas
Rabold, D.E., Westinghouse Savannah River Co., Aiken, SC WSRC-MS-95-0303, NTIS: DE96002956, 10 pp, 1996

A bioremediation system for the removal of chlorinated solvents from ground water and sediments is described. The system involves the in situ injection of natural gas as a microbial nutrient through an innovative configuration of horizontal wells. The document is available to view or download through the DOE Information Bridge.

In Situ Bioremediation: Interim Remedial Action Report, Test Area North, Operable Unit 1-07B
U.S. DOE, Idaho Operations Office.
DOE/NE-ID-11221, Rev 2, 48 pp, June 2009

This Interim Remedial Action Report is for the in situ bioremediation (ISB) remedial component of Operable Unit 1-07B at Test Area North at the Idaho National Laboratory. ISB is the final hot-spot remedial component of the overall OU 1-07B groundwater remedial action. The ISB system injects amendment into the aquifer to enhance the growth of indigenous subsurface microorganisms that naturally dechlorinate trichloroethene, tetrachloroethene, dichloroethene, and vinyl chloride to nonhazardous ethene, ethane, chloride, carbon dioxide, and water. Working in conjunction with naturally occurring organisms, the ISB system creates a biologically reduced zone that encompasses the plume's hot spot by injection of an electron donor, which stimulates biological activity in the aquifer. The injection system has been used to deliver both sodium lactate and whey powder as electron donors. Routine operations for the ISB system include amendment injection, sampling, and field laboratory procedures. This interim report provides a chronology of events and a description of the remedial action facilities, systems, components, and operating documents that lead to a declaration that the system is operational and functional. The report also summarizes project costs and lessons learned.

In Situ Remediation of PCE at a Site with Clayey Lithology and a Significant Smear Zone
Molin, J., J. Mueller, D. Hanson, T. Fowler, and T. Skrotzki.
Remediation Journal, Vol 20 No 3, p 51-62, 2010

This paper describes the pilot-scale demonstration of in situ chemical reduction (ISCR) technology using EHC(r) at the former Serry's Dry Cleaning site in Corvallis, OR. The groundwater was affected by chlorinated VOCs, primarily PCE, TCE, DCE, and vinyl chloride, at concentrations up to 22,000, 1,700, 3,100, and 7 ug/L, respectively, prior to treatment. EHC(r) combines a slow, controlled-release carbon source and ZVI for the anaerobic chemical reduction of CVOCs. Performance data are available for the 3-year period following the injections.

In-Situ Substrate Addition to Create Reactive Zones for Treatment of Chlorinated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: ESTCP Cost and Performance Report
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), Project ER-9920, 93 pp, 2007

In-Situ Substrate Addition to Create Reactive Zones for Treatment of Chlorinated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: Hanscom Air Force Base
C.C. Lutes, V. D'Amato, A. Frizzell, M. Hansen, G. Gordon, P. Palmer, and S. Suthersan.
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), 431 pp, 2003.

The active treatment phase of the demonstration took place from October 2000 to October 2002, during which time 47 injections conducted in a single injection well delivered 1,250 gallons of raw blackstrap molasses, 11,250 gallons of dilution water, 7,575 gallons of push water, and 4,732 grams of potassium bromide. Monitoring was conducted during the demonstration to gauge technology effectiveness, describe changes in biogeochemical conditions, and gather process monitoring feedback.

In-Situ Substrate Addition to Create Reactive Zones for Treatment of Chlorinated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: Vandenberg Air Force Base
C.C. Lutes, A. Frizzell, B. Molnaa, and P. Palmer.
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP). 335 pp, 2004.

This report documents an evaluation of the efficacy of the In-Situ Reactive Zone/Enhanced Reductive Dechlorination (IRZ/ERD) technology in removing TCE from impacted ground water in a range of geologic conditions and TCE concentrations. Active molasses-based treatment from February 2001 to April 2003 provided an opportunity to evaluate IRZ at a site that was initially highly aerobic, with minimal evidence of natural attenuation of TCE.

An Integrated Site Wide Approach to Chlorinated Solvent Source Remediation in an Active Manufacturing Facility
Dickson, J.R., A. Lonergan, R. Stenson, and C. Winkeljohn.
International Journal of Soil, Sediment and Water, Vol 2 No 2, Article 6, 2009

The discovery of PCE, TCE, and TCA in the aquifer underlying an anonymous manufacturing facility prompted the initiation of an aggressive voluntary site-wide soil and groundwater cleanup. CVOC impacts to the unsaturated zone were delineated by the installation of an innovative SVE system designed with a pneumatically actuated valve manifold system to cycle the 120 extraction points, which allowed for delineation of impacts, targeted hot-spot source areas, and reduced contaminant levels while remaining below regulatory discharge requirements. The innovative system design reduced equipment size by 80%. Augmented with sodium lactate, the groundwater remediation system operates as a closed-loop bioreactor for CVOC removal via reductive dechlorination. Groundwater treatment is ongoing.

Limited-Access Bioremediation in a Factory Setting
Farnsworth, D.R., W.A. Murray, and D.L. Bronson.
Proceedings of the Annual International Conference on Soils, Sediments, Water and Energy, Vol 15 Article 2, 7 pp, 2010

At a factory in New Hampshire, TCE released through a storm-water outfall pipe contaminated the groundwater. Tight soils, shallow water table, access limitations, and a pending property sale complicated the cleanup. Due to the low permeability of the soil, effective introduction of the Hydrogen Release Compound (HRC) required many injection points and applications. After the start of HRC application, VOC levels at the outfall dropped to below the state regulatory standard. The treatment has not interfered with site activities or the sale of the property, and site closure is expected to be completed in a reasonable timeframe.

A Low-Cost, Passive Approach for Bacterial Growth and Distribution for Large-Scale Implementation of Bioaugmentation
Trotsky, J., R.A. Wymore, M.R. Lamar, and K.S. Sorenson.
ESTCP Project ER-200513, TR-2354-ENV, 585 pp, 2010

The relative pros and cons of active recirculation and low-cost, passive inject-and-drift strategies for large-scale bioaugmentation of TCE in groundwater were evaluated in a side-by-side comparison at the Seal Beach Naval Weapons Station, Seal Beach Site 70, CA. The active and passive approaches were compared in a full-scale TCE source area application. Electron donor was added weekly for the active cell and monthly for the passive cell. After several months of pre-conditioning, a commercially available culture was added. Overall, bacterial growth and dechlorination performance was similar using both approaches, but the active system was more costly.

Progress Report and Technical Evaluation of the ISCR Pilot Test Conducted at the Former CCC/USDA Grain Storage Facility in Centralia, Kansas
L.M. LaFreniere.
ANL/EVS/AGEM/TR-08-18, 462 pp, 2009

A short-term field-scale pilot test of EHC(r) (Adventus Americas, Inc., Freeport, IL) was conducted in a spot showing high carbon tetrachloride concentrations in both the vadose and saturated zones. Injection of the material (food-grade organic carbon and zero-valent iron as a slurry) was performed from November 26-December 5, 2007. This report documents and provides a technical evaluation of the results, recommendations, and costs of the in situ chemical reduction pilot test as of September 2008.

Project SABRE: Source Area BioRemediation
CL:AIRE (Contaminated Land: Applications in Real Environments), London, UK. SABRE Bulletins 1-6, Sep 2010

Project SABRE began in October 2004 and ran through 2009 at a former chemical manufacturing plant in the East Midlands. A multidisciplinary team from the UK, USA, and Canada undertook the 5-year collaborative project to demonstrate that in situ enhanced anaerobic bioremediation can result in effective treatment of chlorinated solvent DNAPL source areas�in this case, TCE. The project team also sought to improve related site investigation tools and understanding of subsurface processes. Enhanced bioremediation was implemented through introduction of DNAPL-partitioning soya oil emulsion (SRS(tm), a commercial product provided by Terra Systems Inc.) to the source zone as a source of electron donor at the DNAPL:water interface. As one of the most highly instrumented field-scale groundwater test facilities constructed anywhere in the world, the SABRE test cell provided effective containment of groundwater in the sandy gravel aquifer enclosed within the cell, which enabled the field trials to be conducted with a constrained flow field, controlled residence times, and relatively accurate quantification of mass fluxes.

Protocol for In Situ Bioremediation of Chlorinated Solvents Using Edible Oil
2007

The addition of pure liquid edible oil and edible oil emulsions, referred to as the edible oil process, has been used to stimulate the in situ anaerobic biodegradation of chlorinated solvents and related contaminants at commercial, industrial and military sites throughout the United States. The protocol presented in this document is intended to assist base managers and project engineers in 1) determining if the edible oil process is appropriate for their site; 2) designing and implementing an edible oil engineered system; and 3) evaluating and optimizing remedial performance over time. This protocol also provides background information on the development and scientific basis of this technology.

Pump and Treat and In Situ Bioremediation of Contaminated Groundwater at the French Ltd. Superfund Site, Crosby, Texas: Cost and Performance Report
1998. Federal Remediation Technologies Roundtable. 16 pp.

Push-Pull Tests for Evaluating the Aerobic Cometabolism of Chlorinated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: ESTCP Cost and Performance Report
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program, NTIS: ADA468544, 46 pp, 2006

Single-well push/pull test methods were demonstrated at Fort Lewis Logistics Center (using toluene as a cometabolic growth substrate) and McClellan AFB (during cometabolic air sparging with propane as a growth substrate) to determine (1) the transport characteristics of nutrients, substrates, and CAHs and their transformation products; (2) the capability of indigenous microorganisms to utilize selected substrates and transform targeted contaminants and surrogate compounds; (3) the rates of substrate utilization and contaminant transformation; and (4) the combinations of injected nutrients and substrates that maximize rates of contaminant transformation.

RCRA Showcase Pilot, Region 9: Romic Environmental Technologies Corporation, East Palo Alto, CA
2001. U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste, RCRA Corrective Action Hazardous Waste Cleanup Program, 3 pp.

Remediation of DNAPL through Sequential In Situ Chemical Oxidation and Bioaugmentation
D. Major.
ESTCP Project ER-0116, 92 pp, 2009

This project was conducted to assess the technical feasibility of sequential application of in situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) and in situ bioremediation (ISB) and to identify the optimal timing of the transition from ISCO to ISB. The field demonstration was conducted at Launch Complex 34, Kennedy Space Center, Florida, where an extensive TCE DNAPL source is present in the groundwater. In 1999, a demonstration of ISCO using potassium permanganate at LC-34 was completed in a 75 ft x 50 ft test plot. Construction of a groundwater recirculation treatment system was initiated and completed in 2003, and injections of ethanol (ISB, or biostimulation) and KB-1 (bioaugmentation) took place in 2004. The system was operated between June 2003 and August 2004. Electron donor addition (ISB) after ISCO resulted in partial biodegradation of TCE, with complete biodegradation observed after bioaugmentation. ESTCP Cost and Performance Report

Removal of Perchloroethylene within a Silt Confining Layer Using Hydrogen Release Compound
Irwin, J.A. and D.E. Marsh.
Proceedings of the Annual International Conference on Soils, Sediments, Water and Energy 15:227-235(2010)

A former drycleaner in the Connecticut River basin had PCE up to 250 mg/L in perched groundwater above a silt-layer aquitard. Vapor intrusion (VI) into a commercial building was mitigated by a passive vapor barrier and an SVE system. HRC® injection was implemented for source control and VI mitigation, and multiple injections over an 8-yr period in the sandy unit above the aquitard achieved significant PCE reduction in the silt layer below. MIPs deployed to assess the extent of additional area within the perched groundwater needing treatment showed PCE peripheral to the initial treatment zones. Additional HRC injection to address PCE both vertically and laterally over a wider area further decreased PCE concentrations in perched groundwater and soil gas.

Soil Vapor Extraction at the Seymour Recycling Corporation Superfund Site, Seymour, Indiana: Cost and Performance Report
1998. Federal Remediation Technologies Roundtable. 17 pp.

Streamlined Remediation System Evaluation, Wash King Laundry Superfund Site, Pleasant Plains Township, Michigan
U.S. EPA, Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation.
EPA 540-R-11-019, 55 pp, 2011

Placed on the NPL in 1983, remedy implementation to address PCE and its breakdown products began in 1999. The pump-and-treat (P&T) and SVE systems were fully operational in 2001. In situ bioremediation of the groundwater and saturated soils in the vicinity of the former laundry began in January 2010 using the Oppenheimer Formula CL product, which involves injection of microorganisms, a biocatalyst, and nutrients. Each of six injection arrays received 250 lbs of product mixed with 2,000 gals of water. The injections were repeated in September 2010, with a similar bioremediation event scheduled for 2011. This streamlined RSE focuses on the P&T and SVE systems, in situ bioremediation project, and site-wide monitoring program.

Substrate Flood-Injection Approach to Treat the Source Area of a Thin Discontinuous Aquifer
D. Springer, A. Atta, and J. Eberharter.
In Situ and On-Site Bioremediation 2009: Proceedings of the 10th International In Situ and On-Site Bioremediation Symposium, 5-8 May, Baltimore, Maryland. Battelle Press, ISBN: 9780981973012, 2009

An in situ groundwater remedial program is ongoing in the contaminant source area located beneath a currently inactive Titan missile launch complex, Space Launch Complex 4 East (SLC-4E), at Vandenberg Air Force Base, CA. TCE and ammonium perchlorate (2,500 and 900 ug/L, respectively) both source a contaminant plume extending over 1 mile from the launch pad. A groundwater pilot test at SLC-4E featured injections of an amended sodium lactate solution with bromide tracer followed by microbial inoculation, with documented destruction of perchlorate and sequential dechlorination of TCE and daughter products to ethene within 4 to 6 months. In a subsequent full-scale interim removal action, wells were installed in the limited accessible areas overlying the groundwater source area, with planned injection and monitoring well pairs generally spaced 30 to 60 ft apart. Dilute batches of amended soluble sodium lactate solution were mixed on site and gravity-fed through manifolds into the injection wells. The use of the bromide tracer emerged as a cost-effective laboratory analytical means of establishing the success of substrate migration between well pairs. Sequencing soluble substrate injections over a 1-year period enabled a pulsing of substrate addition, which served to maintain the geochemical changes and expand the reactive zone successively over time.

Successful Enhanced Bioremediation and Bioaugmentation of a Carbon Tetrachloride and TCE Groundwater Plume
Zawtocki, C. and M. Bramblett.
In Situ and On-Site Bioremediation 2009: Proceedings of the 10th International In Situ and On-Site Bioremediation Symposium, 5-8 May, Baltimore, Maryland. Battelle Press, ISBN: 9780981973012, 2009

Groundwater at a former specialty chemical facility in the South Carolina Piedmont is contaminated with carbon tetrachloride, TCE, and benzene. In 2007, two pilot tests were conducted to evaluate the use of emulsified oils and a bioaugmentation culture to stimulate anaerobic biodegradation of the carbon tetrachloride and TCE.
View longer abstract

Successful ISCR-Enhanced Bioremediation of a TCE DNAPL Source Utilizing EHC� and KB-1�
Peale, J.G.D., J. Mueller, and J. Molin.
Remediation Journal, Vol 20 No 3, p 63-81, 2010

Successful full-scale implementation of in situ chemical reduction (ISCR)-enhanced bioremediation of a TCE DNAPL source zone was conducted at an operating facility in Portland, OR. In the demonstration, concentrations of TCE were reduced rapidly to below the maximum contaminant level in less than 6 months following ISCR implementation using EHC® and bioaugmentation with the KB-1® consortium. EHC is a hydrophilic carbon/ZVI blend that promotes degradation of aliphatic hydrocarbons via microbial and abiotic pathways. The remedial action objective for the source area--TCE concentrations below 1% of the solubility limit, or 11,000 µg/L—was achieved in less than 12 months.

Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation Demonstration Bulletin: Enhanced In-Situ Bioremediation Process, Earth Tech, Inc.
2000. Report No: EPA 540-MR-0-504. 3 pp.

Technical Session: Bioremediation of Chlorinated Solvents in Groundwater. Federal Remediation Technologies Roundtable Meeting Minutes, May 27, 1998, Arlington, Virginia

Use of Bioremediation at Superfund Sites
EPA 542-R-01-019, 2001

This report focuses on the use of enhanced bioremediation technologies at 104 Superfund remedial action sites and other contaminated sites. It provides a snapshot of current applications of bioremediation and presents trends over time concerning selection and use of the technology, contaminants and site types treated by the technology, and cost and performance of the technology.

Use of In-Situ Bioremediation of Trichloroethene to Reduce Long-Term Monitoring and Life Cycle Costs
P. Srivastav, G. Jones, R. Mayer, S. Watson, A. Willmore, and A.S. Reed.
E2S2 2010: Environment, Energy Security, and Sustainability Symposium and Exhibition, 14-17 June 2010, Denver, Colorado. National Defense Industrial Association (NDIA), Abstract 10045, 26 slides, 2010

At Spill Site 32 on Columbus AFB, Columbus, MS, the TCE plume is ~0.5 miles wide by 1 mile long and lies partially under an active flight training runway. A remedial design for in situ enhanced bioremediation was developed to reduce TCE concentrations in 2 hot spots to prevent further migration and reduce the cleanup timeframe. An easily fermentable carbon source (EVO/lactate mixture) and an elevated concentration of actively dechlorinating culture was applied at full scale in the field using direct-push injection of nutrients, culture, and a pH buffer at 442 points. In the first year, TCE was reduced over 90% within the treatment areas, and the estimated cleanup time to reach the MCL throughout the plume was reduced from over 60 years for natural attenuation to less than 10 years using enhanced bioremediation in the hot spots. See longer abstract

Workplan for Enhanced In-Situ Bioremediation Pilot Test for Former Intel Facility, 365 Middlefield Road, Mountain View, California
Weiss Associates. Northeast Mountain View Advisory Council, 240 pp, 2005

In a feasibility study that investigated the remediation potential of in situ bioremediation with Hydrogen Release Compound (HRC), in situ bioremediation with Newman Zone emulsified edible oil, in situ chemical oxidation using permanganate, expansion of the existing ground water extraction and treatment system, and excavation of impacted saturated soils, in situ bioremediation with emulsified oil was identified as the most appropriate remedial option for reducing chlorinated hydrocarbons in the ground water of the Intel facility site.

Zenon Environmental Inc.: Zenogem� Biological and Ultrafiltration Technology. Innovative Technology Evaluation Report
1999. Tetra Tech EM, Inc., for U.S. EPA, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH, Report No: EPA 540-R-95-503, 103 pp.

U.S. EPA Contaminated Site Cleanup Information (CLU-IN)

Bioremediation of Chlorinated Solvents

Application