Valence state: The combining capacity of an atom or radical determined by the number of electrons that it will lose, add, or share when it reacts with other atoms.
free product: A NAPL found in the subsurface in sufficient quantity that it can be partially recovered by pumping or gravity drain.
aerobic: Direct aerobic metabolism involves microbial reactions that require oxygen to go forward. The bacteria uses a carbon substrate as the electron donor and oxygen as the electron acceptor. Degradation of contaminants that are susceptible to aerobic degradation but not anaerobic often ceases in the vicinity of the source zone because of oxygen depletion. This can sometimes be reversed by adding oxygen in the form of air (air sparging, bioventing), ozone, or slow oxygen release compound (e.g., ORC(r)).
Aerobic dechlorination may also occur via cometabolism where the dechlorination is incidental to the metabolic activities of the organisms. In this case, contaminants are degraded by microbial enzymes that are metabolizing other organic substrates. Cometabolic dechlorination does not appear to produce energy for the organism. At pilot- or full-scale treatment, cometabolic and direct dechlorination may be indistinguishable, and both processes may contribute to contaminant removal. For aerobic cometabolism to occur there must be sufficient oxygen and a suitable substrate which allows the microbe to produce the appropriate enzyme. These conditions may be present naturally but often in the presence of a source area oxygen and a substrate such as methane or propane will need to be introduced.
Adapted from US. EPA 2006 Engineering Issue: In Situ and Ex Situ Biodegradation Technologies for Remediation of Contaminated Sites
anaerobic: Direct anaerobic metabolism involves microbial reactions occurring in the absence of oxygen and encompasses many processes, including fermentation, methanogenesis, reductive dechlorination, sulfate-reducing activities, and denitrification. Depending on the contaminant of concern, a subset of these activities may be cultivated. In anaerobic metabolism, nitrate, sulfate, carbon dioxide, oxidized metals, or organic compounds may replace oxygen as the electron acceptor.
Anaerobic dechlorination also may occur via cometabolism where the dechlorination is incidental to the metabolic activities of the organisms. In this case, contaminants are degraded by microbial enzymes that are metabolizing other organic substrates. Cometabolic dechlorination does not appear to produce energy for the organism. At pilot- or full-scale treatment, cometabolic and direct dechlorination may be indistinguishable, and both processes may contribute to contaminant removal.
Quoted from US. EPA 2006 Engineering Issue: In Situ and Ex Situ Biodegradation Technologies for Remediation of Contaminated Sites
architecture: "Architecture" refers to the physical distribution of the contaminant in the subsurface. Residuals that take the form of long thin ganglia or small dispersed globules provide a larger surface area that will dissolve much faster than if the same amount of liquid were concentrated in a competent pool.
Sources: For purposes of this discussion, a DNAPL source zone includes the zone that encompasses the entire subsurface volume in which DNAPL is present either at residual saturation or as "pools" of accumulation above confining units. In addition, the DNAPL source zone includes regions that have come into contact with DNAPL that may be storing contaminant mass as a result of diffusion of DNAPL into the soil or rock matrix.
source zone: For purposes of this discussion, a DNAPL source zone includes the zone that encompasses the entire subsurface volume in which DNAPL is present either at residual saturation or as "pools" of accumulation above confining units. In addition, the DNAPL source zone includes regions that have come into contact with DNAPL that may be storing contaminant mass as a result of diffusion of DNAPL into the soil or rock matrix.
focal ulceration: The process or fact of a localized area being eroded away.
metaplasia of the glandular stomach: A change of cells to a form that does not normally occur in the tissue in which it is found.
hyperplasia of the glandular stomach: A condition in which there is an increase in the number of normal cells in a tissue or organ.
histiocytic: Degenerative.
duodenum: First part of the small intestine.
microcytic: Any abnormally small cell.
squamous cell papillomas: A small solid benign tumor with a clear-cut border that projects above the surrounding tissue.
squamous cell carcinomas: Cancer that begins in squamous cells-thin, flat cells that look under the microscope like fish scales. Squamous cells are found in the tissue that forms the surface of the skin, the lining of hollow organs of the body, and the passages of the respiratory and digestive tracts. Squamous cell carcinomas may arise in any of these tissues.
jejunum: The middle portion of the small intestine, between duodenum and ileum. It represents about 2/5 of the remaining portion of the small intestine below duodenum.
ileum: The distal and narrowest portion of the small intestine.
squamous: Flat cells that look like fish scales.
metaplasia: A condition in which there is a change of one adult cell type to another similar adult cell type.
ossification: The process of creating bone, that is of transforming cartilage (or fibrous tissue) into bone.
clastogenesis: Any process resulting in the breakage of chromosomes.
neoplastic: Abnormal and uncontrolled growth of cells.
ulceration: The process or fact of being eroded away.
leucocytosis: An elevation of the total number of white cells in blood.
neutrophils: A type of white blood cell.
chromodulin: A small protein that binds four trivalent chromium ions.
biomagnification: The increased accumulation and concentration of a contaminant at higher levels of the food chain; organisms higher on the food chain will have larger amounts of contaminants than those lower on the food chain, because the contaminants are not eliminated or broken down into other chemicals within the organisms.
exencephaly: Cerebral tissue herniation through a congenital or acquired defect in the skull.
everted viscera: Rotated body organs in the chest cavity.
To Be Considered: Documents, such as federal or state guidances, that are not legally binding but may be relevant to the topic in question.
gaining: A gaining surface water body is one where groundwater flows into it.
losing: A surface water body is losing when there is a permeable sediment bed that is not in contact with the groundwater allowing the surface water to seep through it.
fluvial: Of or pertaining to flow in rivers and streams.
lacustrine: Of or pertaining to a lake as in lacustrine sediments—sediments at the bottom of a lake.
lipid: Any class of fats that are insoluble in water.
lipophilic: Able to dissolve in lipids—in this case fatty tissue.
organelles: A part of a cell such as mitochondrion, vacuole, or chloroplast that plays a specific role in how the cell functions and membranes.
RfD: The RfD is an estimate of a daily exposure of the human population (including sensitive sub-groups) to a substance that is likely to be without "the appreciable risk of deleterious effects during a lifetime." An RfD is expressed in units of mg/kg-day.
autonomic: That part of the nervous system that controls non-conscious actions such as heart rate, perspiration and digestion.
ataxia: Lack of muscle coordination.
funnel-and-gate configuration: A system where low-permeability walls (the funnel) placed in the saturated zone direct contaminated ground-water toward a permeable treatment zone (the gate)
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Carbon Tetrachloride (CT, CAS #56-23-5) is a clear, nonflammable liquid that does not occur naturally. It is slightly soluble in water (800 mg/L at 20oC), has a vapor pressure of 90 mm Hg at 25oC, and a specific gravity of 1.594 at 25oC. The Henry's Law Constant is 2.94 e-2 atm-m3/mole at 25oC, the log Kow is reported as 2.64, and the log Koc value is reported as 2.04 (ASTDR 2005). A summary table of chemical and physical properties can be found in the CT toxicological profile developed by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.
Because of its high vapor pressure, CT is expected to evaporate at a rapid rate from soil. Due to its low soil adsorption coefficient, the compound is expected to absorb slightly to sediment but mostly to be mobile in the soil and migrate into groundwater (ATSDR 2005). Evaporation is a significant source of CT removal from water. The half life of CT in a model river is estimated to be 1.3 hours, and about 5 days in a model lake (HSDB).
Most of the CT in the environment is released to the air as a gas during its production and use. In the atmosphere, CT is very stable and can reside there as long as 30 to 100 years (ATSDR 2005).
CT is not expected to bioaccumulate in animals and fish (ATSDR 2005). Under anaerobic conditions, degradation of CT can occur under both reductive and cometabolic dechlorination. The cometabolic mechanism can be either reductive dechlorination or denitrification (ITRC 2002). CT is recalcitrant or does not degrade at all under aerobic conditions (ITRC 2002, Guang and Englande 1997)
References
Biodegradation Kinetics of Carbon Tetrachloride by Pseudomonas cepacia under Varying Oxidation-Reduction Potential Conditions Guang, J. and A. Englande Jr.
Water Environment Research 69(6):1094-1099(1997)
View abstract
Carbon Tetrachloride, CASRN: 56-23-5 Pubchem PubChem, National Center for Biotechnology Information.
Evidence of Biodegradation of Atmospheric Carbon Tetrachloride in Soils: Field and Microcosm Studies Liu, Xue-Feng, Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 2006
To provide evidence of CT degradation by soils, a 2-year soil air samples monitoring program was initiated in New York and New Jersey. Greenhouse gases (CFC-11, CFC-12, CFC-113, and CHCl3) were monitored with CT. Soil air depth profiles showed that degradation of atmospheric CT occurred in all tested soils and was affected by soil properties such as TOM and pH. Degradation rate constants at Sparkill, NY, were estimated as 0.6/d, 0.2/d, and 0.05/d for soil depth segments of 0, 1 to 2, and 2 to 3 meters, respectively. A time series of CT concentrations at Sparkill showed a seasonal cycle with enhanced degradation in spring. Results suggested that indigenous soil microorganisms were responsible for the degradation. Field soil air profiles of chloroform indicated that it was formed rather than degraded in soils. It is speculated that abiotic mechanisms contributed to the formation of chloroform along with biotic processes. Field soil air profiles of CFCs indicated that CFCs could be considered stable enough with soil depth. In contrast, the microcosm study showed that when native microorganisms were stimulated with appropriate substrates they could transform CFC-11 by both aerobic and anaerobic attack and CFC-12 under anaerobic conditions. A variety of processes investigated contributed to the transformation of CT, chloroform, CFC-11, and CFC-12 in soil. View longer abstract
Carbon Tetrachloride (CT, CAS #56-23-5) is a clear, nonflammable liquid that does not occur naturally. It is slightly soluble in water (800 mg/L at 20oC), has a vapor pressure of 90 mm Hg at 25oC, and a specific gravity of 1.594 at 25oC. The Henry's Law Constant is 2.94 e-2 atm-m3/mole at 25oC, the log Kow is reported as 2.64, and the log Koc value is reported as 2.04 (ASTDR 2005). A summary table
of chemical and physical properties can be found in the CT toxicological profile developed by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.
